When was the internet invented: a journey through its early concepts & arpanet development

Key points

Here are the key pointsWhen Was the Internet Invented?

• The ARPANET laid the foundation for what we now call the internet. It started in 1969 when computers at four US universities got linked up for the first time. This was the first network where computers could talk to each other across long distances. The US military funded this project to keep communication going even if part of the network went down.

• The TCP/IP protocol became the backbone of how internet data moves around. Two engineers, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, created this in the early 1970s. These rules helped different computer networks talk to each other in the same language. By January 1, 1983, all computers on ARPANET had to use TCP/IP – many call this the true “birth date” of the internet as we know it today.

• The World Wide Web made the internet user-friendly for everyone. Tim Berners-Lee invented this in 1989 while working at CERN in Switzerland. He created the first web browser and server, plus the HTTP and HTML standards we still use. The web gave us websites, not just data transfer. It turned the internet from a tool mostly for scientists and the military into something for regular people.

Introduction to the Internet

The internet changed everything. I can clearly recall the first day I chanced upon this new world of computers communicating with each other. In “The Innovators,” Walter Isaacson tells this story well. The internet grew from a small government project to something we can’t live without today.

The internet began as ARPANET in the late 1960s. The computer network that emerged in 1969 was a U.S. Department of Defense effort to allow computers share info even if bits of the network were destroyed. According to Isaacson, ARPANET was initially designed as a self-healing network, which means that it was meant to keep functioning even if parts of it were destroyed. This is because there was no single point of failure within the system.

What made the internet special was its open design. No one person owns it. No single company controls it. This openness let it grow in ways no one planned. And that’s why it changed our world so much.

Early Concepts and Foundations

I’ve always been fascinated by how the internet began. It wasn’t just one person who thought it up. Many bright minds devised something we make use of every day.

Smart people made it possible, not just one genius

In 1945, Vannevar Bush wrote an essay called “As We May Think” in the Atlantic. He described a device called the “memex,” which would store books and records. Users could link these items together. His idea became the basis of hypertext— the system that lets us jump from page to page on the web today.

Bush’s believed that humans could create connections between pieces of information. This concept became the cornerstone of hypertext or the ability to jump from place to place on the web. He thought computers could act like our brains, linking ideas and information.

Next, in the 1960s, came J.C.R. Licklider. Working at ARPA (now DARPA), Licklider wrote the paper Man-Computer Symbiosis in 1960. He believed humans and computers should work together. Licklider said that human minds and computers will work together in the future in a close-knit manner, that their partnership will be able to think of solutions that humans cannot think (Licklider, 1960).

Licklider is so important because he didn’t just have these thoughts – he had the power to fund research. While in charge of ARPA’s computer research program, he was instrumental in creating what is now the Internet.

The idea of an ‘Intergalactic Computer Network’

In 1963, Licklider wrote memos that he titled Intergalactic Computer Network. Yes, that was the name! Although it may sound like science fiction, the ideas were very real.

In these memos, he talked about machines communicating with one another. Users could access programs and data from any location. This was huge! Before this, computers were stand-alone machines that couldn’t share information.

Licklider wrote to his fellow researchers, “If such a net work as I envision nebulously could be brought into operation, we should have on the order of at least four large computers, perhaps six or eight small computers, and a great assortment of disc files and magnetic tape units – and do not forget about remote consoles and teletype stations – all churning away” (Licklider, 1963).

What’s amazing is how much he got right. He foresaw that need for standards so computers could communicate. He knew we’d need ways to find and share files. He understood the network would help people collaborate differently and more effectively.

These early ideas didn’t look much like today’s internet. But they planted the seeds. The ideas of Bush and Licklider show there are no overnight successes. While they didn’t crearte the internet themselves, their work inspired others to imagine new possibilities.

Development of ARPANET

I’ve always been fascinated by how the internet began. The ARPANET story shows how big ideas often start small. Back in the 1960s, big machines that filled entire rooms were the norm. Each computer worked alone. People wanted these machines to talk to each other and that need resulted in ARPANET—the fist version of the internet.

ARPANET started from a simple idea to connect computers across the world. Scientists wanted to share resources and information. They needed a network that could stay strong, even if parts broke down. This was during the Cold War when there were fears of nuclear explosions. The network had to keep working, even if some computers are destroyed.

Role of the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)

ARPA (now called DARPA) played a crucial role in creating the network. The agency began in 1958 after the Soviet Union launched Sputnik. To help America catch up in technology,  the U.S. government created ARPA.

J.C.R. Licklider, who joined ARPA in 1962, wanted computers to be linked. He named it the “Intergalactic Computer Network.” Though that sounds more like science fiction, the concept was very real. Licklider wrote in 1960, “The hope is that, in not too many years, human brains and computing machines will be tightly coupled together, and that the resulting partnership will think as no human brain has ever thought.”

Bob Taylor began overseeing ARPA’s computer research in 1966. Frustrated by the need for three different terminals in his office for three different computers, he thought, why not connect the machines? ARPA gave $1 million to make it happen. That funding launched the ARPANET project.

First message sent over ARPANET in 1969

The historic event took place on October 29, 1969. During that night time, a UCLA team tried to send a message to Stanford Research Institute. The plan was easy: send the word ‘LOGIN’ UCLA to Stanford.

Charley Kline sat at the UCLA computer. He typed “L” and called Stanford on the phone. “Do you see the L?” he asked. “Yes, we see the L,” they replied. Then he typed “O” and asked again. They saw it. Then he typed “G” and the system crashed!

The first message sent over what would become the internet was just “LO” – like lo and behold! They fixed the problem and managed the full login about an hour later. This basic test launched the new world of computer networking we know today.

Leonard Kleinrock and the development of ARPANET

Leonard Kleinrock stands out among the ARPANET pioneers. He worked on queueing theory, which laid the foundation for packet switching— the basis of the internet. Packet switching divides data into smaller chunks called packets, which navigate to their destination independently.

In 1961, Kleinrock wrote a paper on packet switching theory, even though packet-switched networks hadn’t been designed yet. In other words, the packet networks that we use today were later built on ideas he invented or theorized.

In 1969, the first ARPANET node was set up at Diane Kleinrock’s UCLA lab, where the first message “LO” was sent. Kleinrock also created other testing tools for measuring network performance. These tools helped engineers understand how data moved through the system.

Kleinrock believed networks would change everything. He said, “As of today, computer networks are still in their infancy; but as they grow up and become sophisticated, we will probably see the spread of ‘computer utilities’, which, like present electric and telephone utilities, will service individual homes and offices nationwide.” (UCLA, 1969). His vision proved remarkably accurate.

Packet Switching and Networking

When I first heard about packet-switching, I thought it was one of those things that seem so obvious now but were revolutionary when they first appeared. The technology we use to access the internet daily is often overlooked. Few of us really understand how our data actually gets from point A to point B.

Both Paul Baran and Donald Davies introduces a packet switching technology

In the 1960s, two men, while working independently, came up with the same big idea. Paul Baran at RAND Corporation in America and Donald Davies at the National Physical Laboratory in Britain both thought of ways to break data into small chunks for sending across networks.

Baran was solving a military problem. He aimed to create a network that would stay functional after a bomb. His ideas was simple—don’t send all the data at once down one path. Instead, split it into tiny packets and allow each of those packets to find its own way.

Unaware of Baran’s work, Davies came up with the same basic concept. He gave it the name that we still use toda “packet switching.” His focus was on making computer networking faster and more useful for the average person.

As Isaacson put it, “Baran was focusing on building a communications network that had no centre and could withstand a nuclear attack. Davies was focusing on making an effective commercial data network.”

Impact of packet switching on efficient data transmission

Before packet switching, data networks worked like phone lines. These systems that used circuit switching, which kept the connection open continuously from start to end. It was like building a dedicated road just for one car—a waste when no one was driving on it.

Packet switching changed everything. Packets could take different routes through the network because they traveled separately and didn’t block each other. If one route was busy, no problem—the packets found another way. When they arrived, they reassembled in the correct order.

This made networks much more efficient. Many people could share the same connections, and the system delivered only what was needed at any given time. It’s kind of like how some highways don’t allow trucks on them to keep things moving smoothly. The same idea applies to the internet.

In 1969, ARPANET adopted packet switching, laying the groundwork for the modern internet. In his 1972 paper, ARPANET creators Lawrence Roberts noted that “efficiency is increased by as much as a factor of ten” compared to circuit switching.

The process made networks faster, more efficient and less prone to failure. If packets ran into problems along one route, they simply took another. The internet’s resilience today—the reason it’s so hard to destroy—comes from this ‘self-healing’ quality.

I believe packet-switching might be the most important idea behind the internet. Without it, we wouldn’t have the flexible, robust network that connects our world. One might not be aware of the names of Baran and Davies but their work transformed the way how we live, work, and communicate.

Transition to the Modern Internet

I have always been interested in how we our modern-day internet came to be. It didn’t just appear overnight. Its development shows how smart people, working together, can change the world.

Ethos essay on a wide variety of subjects across the globe

The internet originated as ARPANET, created by the Advanced Research Projects Agency. But ARPANET had a big problem—it could only connect certain types of computers. This limitation stood in the way of growth.

The solution came in the form of TCP/IP. These protocols acted like a common language, allowing different computer networks to communicate with each other. It was a huge step forward. Before TCP/IP, networks were like isolated islands; afterward, they became one connected world.

On January 1, 1983, ARPANET switched over to TCP/IP on a day referred to as “Flag Day.” This date marks the birth of the modern internet. From that point on, every ARPANET host had to implement the new protocols, creating the network we now call the internet.

The creation of the new protocols were due to Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn

Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn are known as the fathers of TCP/IP. They met while working on ARPANET in the early 1970s. In 1973, they began designing a new kind of network. The objective was simple yet complex: create a system where any network could talk to any other network.

In 1974, Cerf and Kahn wrote a paper called “A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication.” This paper explained the basics of TCP/IP. In the words of Cerf himself, “We were just trying to solve a problem that we could see was going to get worse as more and more networks came into being” (Cerf 2012).

What made their work so important? They built TCP/IP with open standards. Anyone could use these protocols without having to pay for them. This open approach helped the internet grow quickly. It also made sure no single company could control it.

What Cerf and Kahn achieved shows us how good ideas can change the world quickly. They didn’t just solve a technical problem; they created a system that connects billions of people together. The Internet Society says, “The team made it easy for anyone to run a website, blog or online platform. Their work has helped billions of people connect, create, and share in ways that were once unimaginable” (Internet Society, 2019).

And this is quite cool – the two of them are still shaping the internet. Cerf is now the “Chief Internet Evangelist” at Google while Kahn works with the Corporation for National Research Initiatives. They continue to advocate for an open internet that works for everyone.

Commercialization and Expansion

I think it’s really interesting how the internet transitioned from a government project to something we use in everyday life. The story is pretty amazing when you think about it.

A government initiative turned into a commercial product

At the beginning of the 1990s, the internet was mainly a tool limited to researchers and academics. The big change came when the United States government decided to allow companies to use the network. The National Science Foundation (NSF) made the decision to let businesses utilize the backbone of the internet.

The 1993 decision by the NSF to hand over internet management to the private sector was a major turning point. They established Network Access Points where different networks could connect and exchange traffic. This move opened the door for commercial enterprises to enter and help build the internet we know today.

According to Tim Berners-Lee – the creator of the World Wide Web: “The Web as I envisioned it, we have not seen it yet. The future is still so much bigger than the past” (Isaacson, 2014)

Internet service providers (ISP) emerged in the 1990s

The early 1990s saw the birth of the first Internet Service Providers (ISPs). Starting in 1992, companies like PSINet, UUNET, and Netcom began offering internet access to the public. Prior to that, getting online meant you had to connect to a university or a government agency.

By 1994, there were about 3,000 websites. Just a year later, in 1995, that number jumped to 23,500 (Zakon, 2000). More users gained access through new ISPs, fueling this rapid growth.

The movement from state to commercial power was bumpy. Many people worried that the business interests would compormise the open nature of the internet. However, this shift also brought in a lot of new ideas, innovation, and investment.

In 1995, the Federal Networking Council officially classified the term “Internet” as “the global information system that is logically linked together by a globally unique address space” (Leiner et al., 2009). This definition came as the internet was becoming more commercialized.

The rise of the internet generation transformed daily life and created jobs and other new industries. It’s incredible to think that the internet was originally designed just to connect government research computers!

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